British (UK)

The National Curriculum of England (UK) is a very structured curriculum that is designed to meet the needs of all students, stretching brighter children and supporting those who need it through differentiated teaching and learning activities. The curriculum extends and excites all students, whatever their interests or ability. Through it, teachers are able to identify, celebrate and nurture the talents and intelligences of students.

British education is renowned for concerning itself with the development of the whole personality.

In the British education system, students are taught to learn by questioning, problem-solving and creative thinking rather than by the mere retention of facts, hence giving them analytical and creative thinking skills that they will need in the working world. A variety of teaching and assessment methods designed to develop independent thought as well as a mastery of the subject matter is used.

The National Curriculum of England has a clearly defined series of academic and other objectives at every level. mydrasa focuses on Key stage 3 (Year 7-9), Key stage 4 IGCSE/GCSE (Year 10-11) and Key stage 5 A-Level (Year 12-13).

mydrasa added subjects related to Key stage 4 to Year 9, and added subjects related to Key stage 5 to Year 11 for student preparation.

IGCSE stands for the "International General Certificate of Secondary Education". It is a program leading to externally set, marked and certificated examinations from the University of Cambridge. Any student who takes an IGCSE subject will be gaining a qualification that is recognized globally.

The exam boards covered under the International GCSE are Cambridge, Edexcel, and Oxford AQA.

SUbjects

Subjects

Cambridge - Biology - 0610

  • Overview
  • Chapters

The Cambridge IGCSE Biology course focuses on human Biology. It helps learners to understand the technological world in which they live, and take an informed interest in science and scientific developments. Learners gain an understanding of the basic principles of biology through a mix of theoretical and practical studies. They also develop an understanding of the scientific skills essential for further study.

Learners understand how science is studied and practiced, and become aware that the results of scientific research can have both good and bad effects on individuals, communities and the environment.

  • 1: Characteristics and classification of living organisms
    1.1: Characteristics of living organisms
    1.1.1: Describe the characteristics of living organisms - Movement
    1.1.2: Defining the term - movement
    1.1.3: Characteristics and classification of living organisms - Respiration
    1.1.4: Define the term - Respiration
    1.1.5: Characteristics and classification of living organisms - Sensitivity
    1.1.6: Define the term - Sensitivity
    1.1.7: Characteristics and classification of living organisms - Growth
    1.1.8: Define the term - Growth
    1.1.9: Characteristics and classification of living organisms - Reproduction
    1.1.10: Characteristics and classification of living organisms - Excretion
    1.1.11: Define the term - Excretion
    1.1.12: Characteristics and classification of living organisms - nutrition
    1.1.13: Define the term - Nutrition
    1.2: Concept and use of a classification system
    1.2.1: Organisms can be classified into groups by the features
    1.2.2: Define species as a group of organisms that can reproduce
    1.2.3: Define and describe the binomial system of naming species
    1.2.4: Explain that classification systems aim to reflect evolutionary relationships
    1.2.5: Explain that classification is based on studies of morphology and anatomy
    1.2.6: Explain that the sequences of bases in DNA and of amino acids in proteins
    1.2.7: Organisms share similar base sequences in DNA with more recent ancestor
    1.3: Features of organisms
    1.3.1: Features in the cells of living organisms for cytoplasm, cell membrane and DNA
    1.3.2: List the main features of animals and plants and their appropriate kingdoms
    1.3.3: Features within the animal kingdom of vertebrates
    1.3.4: Features within the animal kingdom of arthropods
    1.3.5: Features in the cells of ribosomes for protein
    1.3.6: synthesis and enzymes involved in respiration
    1.3.7: Features used to place all organisms into one of the five kingdoms
    1.3.8: Features used to place organisms into groups within the plant kingdom
    1.3.9: Features of viruses, limited to protein coat and genetic material
    1.4: Dichotomous keys
    1.4.1: Construct and use simple dichotomous keys based on easily identifiable features
  • 2: Organisation of the organism
    2.1: Cell structure and organisation
    2.1.1: Describe and compare the structure of a plant cell with an animal cell
    2.1.2: State the functions of the structures in the plant cell and in the animal cell
    2.1.3: State that the cytoplasm of all cells contains structures
    2.1.4: All cells except prokaryotes have mitochondria and rough endoplasmic reticulum
    2.1.5: Identify mitochondria and rough endoplasmic reticulum
    2.1.6: Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria
    2.1.7: Cells with high rates of metabolism require large numbers of mitochondria
    2.2: Levels of organisation
    2.2.1: Ciliated cells – movement of mucus in the trachea and bronchi
    2.2.2: Root hair cells – absorption
    2.2.3: Xylem vessels – conduction and support
    2.2.4: Palisade mesophyll cells – photosynthesis
    2.2.5: Nerve cells – conduction of impulses
    2.2.6: Red blood cells – transport of oxygen
    2.2.7: Sperm and egg cells – reproduction
    2.2.8: Define tissue as a group of cells with similar structures
    2.2.9: Define organ as a structure made up of a group of tissues
    2.2.10: Define organ system as a group of organs with related functions
    2.2.11: State examples of tissues, organs and organ systems
    2.2.12: Different levels of organisation of familiar material
    2.2.13: Different levels of organisation of unfamiliar material
    2.3: Size of specimens
    2.3.1: Magnification and size of biological specimens using millimetres
    2.3.2: Magnification and size of biological specimens using millimetres and micrometres
  • 3: Movement in and out of cells
    3.1: Diffusion
    3.1.1: Define diffusion as the net movement of particles from a region of their higher
    3.1.2: Describe the importance of diffusion of gases and solutes
    3.1.3: Substances move into and out of cells by diffusion through the cell membrane
    3.1.4: Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy
    3.1.5: Investigate the factors that influence diffusion
    3.2: Osmosis
    3.2.1: State that water diffuses through partially permeable membranes by osmosis
    3.2.2: State that water moves in and out of cells by osmosis through the cell membrane
    3.2.3: Immersing plant tissues in solutions of different concentrations - C
    3.2.4: Immersing of plant tissues in solutions of different concentrations - E
    3.2.5: Plants are supported by the pressure of water inside the cells
    3.2.6: Define osmosis as the net movement of water molecules
    3.2.7: Explain the importance of water potential and osmosis in plants
    3.2.8: Explain the importance of water potential and osmosis on animals
    3.2.9: Explain how plants are supported by the turgor pressure within cells
    3.3: Active transport
    3.3.1: Define active transport as the movement of particles through a cell membrane
    3.3.2: Importance of active transport as a process for movement across membranes
    3.3.3: Explain how protein molecules move particles across a membrane
  • 4: Biological molecules
    4.1: Biological molecules
    4.1.1: Chemical element that make up Carbs, fats, proteins
    4.1.2: State that large molecules are made from smaller molecules
    4.1.3: Describe the use of iodine, Benedict’s, biuret, ethanol emulsion, DCPIP
    4.1.4: State that water is important as a solvent
    4.1.5: Explain that different sequences of amino acids give different shapes
    4.1.6: Relate the shape and structure of protein molecules to their function
    4.1.7: Describe the structure of DNA
    4.1.8: Describe the roles of water as a solvent in organisms
  • 5: Enzymes
    5.1: Enzymes
    5.1.1: Catalyst as a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction
    5.1.2: Define enzymes as proteins that function as biological catalysts
    5.1.3: Describe why enzymes are important in all living organisms
    5.1.4: Describe enzyme action with reference to the complementary shape of an enzyme
    5.1.5: The effect of changes in temperature and pH on enzyme activity
    5.1.6: Explain enzyme action with reference to the active site
    5.1.7: Explain the specificity of enzymes in terms of the complementary shape
    5.1.8: Explain the effect of changes in temperature on enzyme activity
    5.1.9: Explain the effect of changes in pH on enzyme activity
  • 6: Plant nutrition
    6.1: Photosynthesis
    6.1.1: Photosynthesis as the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates
    6.1.2: Photosynthesis equation
    6.1.3: Balanced chemical equation
    6.1.4: chlorophyll transfers light energy into chemical energy
    6.1.5: Use and storage of the carbohydrates
    6.1.6: The importance of chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide
    6.1.7: Effects on photosynthesis rate
    6.1.8: Definition of limiting factor
    6.1.9: limiting factors of photosynthesis
    6.1.10: Carbon dioxide enrichment, optimum light and optimum temperatures in glasshouses
    6.1.11: Hydrogencarbonate indicator solution to investigate the effect of gas exchange
    6.2: Leaf structure
    6.2.1: Leaves of a dicotyledonous plant
    6.2.2: internal structure of a leaf
    6.3: Mineral requirements
    6.3.1: Importance of nitrate and magnesium
    6.3.2: Nitrate and Magnesium deficiency
  • 7: Human nutrition
    7.1: Diet
    7.1.1: Balanced diet for humans
    7.1.2: Dietary needs of humans
    7.1.3: Effects of malnutrition
    7.1.4: Principal sources and dietary importance
    7.1.5: vitamin D and iron deficiencies
    7.1.6: protein-energy malnutrition
    7.2: Alimentary canal
    7.2.1: Ingestion definition
    7.2.2: Mechanical digestion definition
    7.2.3: Chemical digestion definition
    7.2.4: Absorption definition
    7.2.5: Assimilation definition
    7.2.6: Egestion definition
    7.2.7: Description of diarrhea
    7.2.8: Treatment of diarrhoea using oral rehydration therapy
    7.2.9: Cholera disease
    7.2.10: Cholera bacterium produces a toxin
    7.2.11: Main regions of the alimentary canal and associated organs
    7.2.12: Functions of the regions of the alimentary canal
    7.3: Mechanical digestion
    7.3.1: Types of human teeth
    7.3.2: The structure of human teeth
    7.3.3: The functions of the types of human teeth
    7.3.4: The causes of dental decay
    7.3.5: The proper care of teeth
    7.4: Chemical digestion
    7.4.1: The significance of chemical digestion
    7.4.2: The functions of enzymes
    7.4.3: The digestion of starch in the alimentary canal
    7.4.4: Where enzymes are secreted
    7.4.5: Pepsin and trypsin function sites
    7.4.6: Hydrochloric acid function
    7.4.7: The functions of the hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, limited to the low pH
    7.4.8: The role of bile in neutralising the acidic mixture of food
    7.4.9: The role of bile in emulsifying fats
    7.5: Absorption
    7.5.1: The region for the absorption
    7.5.2: The significance of villi and microvill
    7.5.3: The structure of a villus
    7.5.4: The roles of capillaries and lacteals
    7.5.5: Water is absorbed in both the small intestine and the colon
  • 8: Transport in plants
    8.1: Transport in plants
    8.1.1: The functions of xylem and phloem
    8.1.2: The position of xylem and phloem
    8.2: Water uptake
    8.2.1: Root hair cell structure and function
    8.2.2: The large surface area of root hairs increases the absorption of water
    8.2.3: The pathway taken by water
    8.2.4: Using a suitable stain, the pathway of water
    8.3: Transpiration
    8.3.1: Water transport through xylem vessels
    8.3.2: loss of water vapour by transpiration
    8.3.3: Water vapour loss is related to the large surface area
    8.3.4: The mechanism by which water moves upwards in the xylem
    8.3.5: How and why wilting occurs
    8.3.6: The effects of variation of temperature and humidity on transpiration rate
    8.3.7: Effects on transpiration rate
    8.4: Translocation
    8.4.1: The movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem
    8.4.2: Some parts of a plant may act as a source and a sink
  • 9: Transport in animals
    9.1: Transport in animals
    9.1.1: The circulatory system
    9.1.2: The single circulation of a fish
    9.1.3: The double circulation of a mammal
    9.1.4: The advantages of a double circulation
    9.2: Heart
    9.2.1: The structures of the mammalian heart
    9.2.2: The atrioventricular and semilunar valves
    9.2.3: Muscle wall thickness of atria and ventricles
    9.2.4: Blood pumping from the heart into arteries and returns to the heart in veins
    9.2.5: The importance of the septum
    9.2.6: The functioning of the heart
    9.2.7: Monitoring heart activity
    9.2.8: The effect of physical activity on the heart rate
    9.2.9: The roles of diet and exercise in the prevention of coronary heart disease
    9.2.10: The effect of physical activity on the pulse rate
    9.2.11: Coronary heart disease and risk factors
    9.2.12: Ways of treatment of coronary heart disease
    9.3: Blood and lymphatic vessels
    9.3.1: The structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries
    9.3.2: Adaptation of arteries, veins and capillaries structures for their functions
    9.3.3: Names of main blood vessels
    9.3.4: Outline the lymphatic system
    9.3.5: The function of the lymphatic system
    9.4: Blood
    9.4.1: The components of blood
    9.4.2: Red and white blood cells
    9.4.3: Lymphocyte and phagocyte
    9.4.4: The functions of some of the components of blood
    9.4.5: Functions of white blood cells
    9.4.6: The process of clotting
    9.4.7: The roles of blood clotting
    9.4.8: The transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid
  • 10: Diseases and immunity
    10.1: Diseases and immunity
    10.1.1: Pathogen
    10.1.2: Transmissible disease
    10.1.3: Transmission of pathogen
    10.1.4: Body defences
    10.1.5: Controlling the spread of the disease
    10.1.6: Lock of antibodies on to antigen
    10.1.7: Specific antigens require specific antibodies
    10.1.8: Active immunity
    10.1.9: How active immunity is gained
    10.1.10: Vaccination process
    10.1.11: The role of vaccination
    10.1.12: Passive immunity
    10.1.13: Memory cells are not produced in passive immunity
    10.1.14: Importance of passive immunity
    10.1.15: Diseases caused by the immune system
  • 11: Gas exchange in humans
    11.1: Gas exchange in humans
    11.1.1: The features of gas exchange surfaces in humans
    11.1.2: Organs and parts related to gas exchange
    11.1.3: The internal and external intercostal muscles
    11.1.4: The functions of the cartilage in the trachea
    11.1.5: Ventilation of the lungs
    11.1.6: Air composition in inspired and expired air
    11.1.7: The differences in composition between inspired and expired air
    11.1.8: Use limewater as a test for carbon dioxide
    11.1.9: Rate and depth of breathing
    11.1.10: The link between physical activity and rate and depth of breathing
    11.1.11: Protection of gas exchange system from pathogens and particles
  • 12: Respiration
    12.1: Respiration
    12.1.1: The uses of energy in the body of humans
    12.1.2: Involvement of enzymes action in respiration
    12.2: Aerobic respiration
    12.2.1: Aerobic respiration definition
    12.2.2: Aerobic respiration equation
    12.2.3: Balanced chemical equation for aerobic respiration
    12.2.4: Rate of respiration of germinating seeds
    12.2.5: Uptake of oxygen by respiring organisms
    12.3: Anaerobic respiration
    12.3.1: Anaerobic respiration definition
    12.3.2: Anaerobic respiration equation
    12.3.3: Balanced chemical equation for anaerobic respiration
    12.3.4: Energy release in anaerobic respiration
    12.3.5: Lactic acid build up
    12.3.6: Removal of oxygen debt during recovery
  • 13: Excretion in humans
    13.1: Excretion in humans
    13.1.1: Formation of urea in the liver
    13.1.2: Role of the liver
    13.1.3: Carbon dioxide excretion
    13.1.4: Deamination
    13.1.5: kidneys excretion
    13.1.6: Volume and concentration of urine
    13.1.7: The ureters, bladder and urethra
    13.1.8: Importance of excretion
    13.1.9: The structure of the kidney
    13.1.10: The structure and functioning of a kidney tubule
    13.1.11: Dialysis
    13.1.12: Use of dialysis in kidney machines
    13.1.13: The advantages and disadvantages of kidney transplants
  • 14: Coordination and response
    14.1: Nervous control in humans
    14.1.1: Nerve impulse
    14.1.2: The human nervous system
    14.1.3: Voluntary and involuntary actions
    14.1.4: Motor (effector), relay (connector) and sensory neurones
    14.1.5: Simple reflex arc
    14.1.6: Reflex action
    14.1.7: Synapse
    14.1.8: The structure of a synapse
    14.1.9: Propagation of an impulse
    14.1.10: Impulse direction in a reflex arc
    14.1.11: Drugs acting upon synapses
    14.2: Sense organs
    14.2.1: Sense organs
    14.2.2: The structure of the eye
    14.2.3: Eye parts function
    14.2.4: Pupil reflex
    14.2.5: Light intensity and antagonistic action of iris muscles
    14.2.6: Near and distant vision
    14.2.7: Distribution of rods and cones
    14.2.8: The function of rods and cones
    14.2.9: The position of the fovea
    14.3: Hormones in humans
    14.3.1: Hormone
    14.3.2: Specific endocrine glands and their secretions
    14.3.3: Adrenaline
    14.3.4: The role of adrenaline in the chemical control of metabolic activity
    14.3.5: Situations in which adrenaline secretion increases
    14.3.6: Nervous and hormonal control systems
    14.3.7: The functions of insulin, oestrogen and testosterone
    14.4: Homeostasis
    14.4.1: Homeostasis
    14.4.2: Homeostasis is the control of internal conditions within set limits
    14.4.3: The concept of control by negative feedback
    14.4.4: The control of the glucose concentration of the blood
    14.4.5: The symptoms and treatment of Type 1 diabetes
    14.4.6: Structure of the skin
    14.4.7: The maintenance of a constant internal body temperature in humans
    14.4.8: vasodilation and vasoconstriction of arterioles in maintaining body temperature
    14.5: Tropic responses
    14.5.1: Gravitropism
    14.5.2: Phototropism
    14.5.3: Gravitropism and phototropism in shoots and roots
    14.5.4: Phototropism and gravitropism of a shoot
    14.5.5: The role of auxin in controlling shoot growth
    14.5.6: The use of the synthetic plant hormone 2,4-D in weedkillers
  • 15: Drugs
    15.1: Drugs
    15.1.1: Drug
    15.2: Medicinal drugs
    15.2.1: The use of antibiotics
    15.2.2: Antibiotic resistant bacteria
    15.2.3: Minimising antibiotic resistance
    15.2.4: Antibiotics kill bacteria but do not affect viruses
    15.2.5: Why antibiotics kill bacteria, but do not affect viruses
    15.3: Misused drugs
    15.3.1: The effects of excessive alcohol consumption and abuse of heroin
    15.3.2: How heroin affects the nervous system
    15.3.3: Injecting heroin can cause infections
    15.3.4: Excessive alcohol consumption can cause liver damage
    15.3.5: Effects of tobacco smoking
    15.3.6: The link between smoking and lung cancer
    15.3.7: The effects of tobacco smoke on the gas exchange system
    15.3.8: The use of hormones to improve sporting performance
    15.3.9: Liver is the site of break down of alcohol and other toxins
  • 16: Reproduction
    16.1: Asexual reproduction
    16.1.1: Asexual reproduction definition
    16.1.2: Examples of asexual reproduction
    16.1.3: The advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction
    16.2: Sexual reproduction
    16.2.1: Sexual reproduction definition
    16.2.2: The nuclei of gametes and the nucleus of a zygote
    16.2.3: Fertilisation
    16.2.4: The advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction
    16.3: Sexual reproduction in plants
    16.3.1: Parts of an insect-pollinated flower
    16.3.2: The functions of the sepals, petals, anthers, stigmas and ovaries
    16.3.3: The anthers and stigmas of a wind-pollinated flower
    16.3.4: Pollen grains of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
    16.3.5: Pollination
    16.3.6: Self-pollination
    16.3.7: Cross-pollination
    16.3.8: Implications of self-pollination and cross-pollination to a species
    16.3.9: Fertilisation in plant
    16.3.10: The growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule
    16.3.11: The structural adaptations of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
    16.3.12: The environmental conditions that affect germination of seeds
    16.4: Sexual reproduction in humans
    16.4.1: The male reproductive system
    16.4.2: The female reproductive system
    16.4.3: Fertilisation in humans
    16.4.4: Male and female gametes
    16.4.5: The adaptive features of sperm
    16.4.6: The adaptive features of sperm (detailed)
    16.4.7: The adaptive features of egg cells
    16.4.8: The adaptive features of egg cells (detailed)
    16.4.9: Formation of an embryo
    16.4.10: The functions of the umbilical cord, placenta, amniotic sac and amniotic fluid
    16.4.11: The function of the placenta and umbilical cord
    16.4.12: The growth and development of the fetus
    16.4.13: Toxins passing the placenta
    16.4.14: The antenatal care of pregnant women
    16.4.15: The advantages and disadvantages of breast-feeding compared with bottle-feeding
    16.4.16: The processes involved in labour and birth
    16.5: Sex hormones in humans
    16.5.1: The roles of testosterone and oestrogen
    16.5.2: The sites of production of oestrogen and progesterone
    16.5.3: The menstrual cycle
    16.5.4: The role of hormones in controlling the menstrual cycle and pregnancy
    16.6: Methods of birth control in humans
    16.6.1: Birth control methods
    16.6.2: The use of hormones in contraception and fertility treatments
    16.6.3: Artificial insemination (AI)
    16.6.4: In vitro fertilisation (IVF)
    16.6.5: The social implications of contraception and fertility treatments
    16.7: Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
    16.7.1: Sexually transmitted infection
    16.7.2: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
    16.7.3: Control of STIs
    16.7.4: Transmission of HIV
    16.7.5: Effects of HIV on the immune system
    16.7.6: HIV infection might lead to AIDS
  • 17: Inheritance
    17.1: Inheritance
    17.1.1: Inheritance definition
    17.2: Chromosomes, genes and proteins
    17.2.1: Chromosome
    17.2.2: Gene
    17.2.3: Allele
    17.2.4: The inheritance of sex in humans
    17.2.5: The sequence of bases in a gene
    17.2.6: DNA controls cell function
    17.2.7: How protein is made
    17.2.8: Gene expression
    17.2.9: Haploid nucleus
    17.2.10: Diploid nucleus
    17.2.11: Human diploid cell
    17.3: Mitosis
    17.3.1: Mitosis definition
    17.3.2: The role of mitosis
    17.3.3: Before mitosis
    17.3.4: During mitosis
    17.3.5: Stem cells
    17.4: Meiosis
    17.4.1: Meiosis definition
    17.4.2: Meiosis as reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved
    17.4.3: Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes
    17.4.4: How meiosis produces variation
    17.5: Monohybrid inheritance
    17.5.1: Genotype
    17.5.2: Phenotype
    17.5.3: Homozygous
    17.5.4: Two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding
    17.5.5: Heterozygous
    17.5.6: Heterozygous individual will not be pure-breeding
    17.5.7: Dominant
    17.5.8: Recessive
    17.5.9: The inheritance of a given characteristic
    17.5.10: The results of monohybrid crosses
    17.5.11: Using a test cross to identify an unknown genotype
    17.5.12: Use Punnett squares in crosses
    17.5.13: Co-dominance
    17.5.14: Sex-linked characteristic
    17.5.15: Colour blindness
    17.5.16: Monohybrid crosses involving co-dominance or sex linkage
  • 18: Variation and selection
    18.1: Variation
    18.1.1: Variation definition
    18.1.2: Phenotypic variation and genetic variation
    18.1.3: Phenotypic variation
    18.1.4: Continuous variation
    18.1.5: Discontinuous variation
    18.1.6: Cause of discontinuous variation
    18.1.7: Continuous and discontinuous variation
    18.1.8: Mutation
    18.1.9: Gene mutation
    18.1.10: Formation of new alleles
    18.1.11: Rate of mutation
    18.1.12: The symptoms of sickle-cell anaemia
    18.1.13: Abnormal haemoglobin and sickle-shaped red blood cells
    18.1.14: inheritance of sickle-cell anaemia
    18.1.15: Resistance to malaria
    18.1.16: The distribution of the sickle-cell allele in human populations
    18.2: Adaptive features
    18.2.1: Adaptive feature
    18.2.2: Increase in fitness by adaptive feature
    18.2.3: Adaptive features about species
    18.2.4: Fitness
    18.2.5: The adaptive features of hydrophytes and xerophytes
    18.3: Selection
    18.3.1: Natural selection
    18.3.2: Evolution
    18.3.3: The process of adaptation
    18.3.4: Development of antibiotic resistant bacteria
    18.3.5: Selective breeding
    18.3.6: The differences between natural and artificial selection
    18.3.7: Selective breeding over many generations
  • 19: Organisms and their environment
    19.1: Energy flow
    19.1.1: The Sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems
    19.1.2: The flow of energy
    19.2: Food chains and food webs
    19.2.1: Food chain
    19.2.2: Energy is transferred between organisms in a food chain by ingestion
    19.2.3: How energy is transferred between trophic levels
    19.2.4: Simple food chains
    19.2.5: Trophic level
    19.2.6: Why the transfer of energy from one trophic level to another is inefficient
    19.2.7: Why food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels
    19.2.8: Supplying plants as food for humans and livestock
    19.2.9: Food web
    19.2.10: Producer
    19.2.11: Consumer
    19.2.12: Primary, secondary and tertiary consumers
    19.2.13: Producers and consumers as the trophic levels
    19.2.14: Herbivore
    19.2.15: Carnivore
    19.2.16: Decomposer
    19.2.17: Producers and consumers in food chains and food webs
    19.2.18: Over-harvesting of food species and introducing foreign species to a habitat
    19.2.19: Pyramids of numbers
    19.2.20: Pyramids of biomass
    19.2.21: The advantages of using a pyramid of biomass rather than a pyramid of numbers
    19.3: Nutrient cycles
    19.3.1: The carbon cycle
    19.3.2: Carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere
    19.3.3: The water cycle
    19.3.4: The nitrogen cycle
    19.3.5: The roles of microorganisms in the nitrogen cycle
    19.4: Population size
    19.4.1: Population
    19.4.2: Community
    19.4.3: Ecosystem
    19.4.4: The factors affecting the rate of population growth
    19.4.5: Growth curve phases for a population in an environment with limited resources
    19.4.6: The factors that lead to each phase in the sigmoid curve of population growth
    19.4.7: The increase in human population size
    19.4.8: Human population growth
  • 20: Biotechnology and genetic engineering
    20.1: Biotechnology and genetic engineering
    20.1.1: Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic engineering
    20.1.2: Why bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic engineering
    20.2: Biotechnology
    20.2.1: The role of anaerobic respiration in yeast during production of ethanol
    20.2.2: The role of anaerobic respiration in yeast during bread-making
    20.2.3: The use of pectinase in fruit juice production
    20.2.4: The use of biological washing powders that contain enzymes
    20.2.5: The use of lactase to produce lactose-free milk
    20.2.6: The role of the fungus Penicillium in the production of penicillin
    20.2.7: How fermenters are used in the production of penicillin
    20.3: Genetic engineering
    20.3.1: Genetic engineering
    20.3.2: Genetic engineering using bacterial production of a human protein
    20.3.3: Examples of genetic engineering
    20.3.4: The advantages and disadvantages of genetically modifying crops
  • 21: Human influences on ecosystems
    21.1: Food supply
    21.1.1: Modern technology has resulted in increased food production
    21.1.2: The social, environmental and economic implications of providing sufficient food
    21.1.3: The problems which contribute to famine
    21.1.4: The negative impacts of large-scale monocultures crop plants to an ecosystem
    21.1.5: The negative impacts of intensive livestock production to an ecosystem
    21.2: Habitat destruction
    21.2.1: The reasons for habitat destruction
    21.2.2: Humans can have a negative impact on habitats
    21.2.3: The undesirable effects of deforestation
    21.2.4: The undesirable effects of deforestation on the environment
    21.3: Pollution
    21.3.1: The sources and effects of pollution of land and water
    21.3.2: The sources and effects of pollution of water
    21.3.3: The process of eutrophication of water
    21.3.4: The effects of non-biodegradable plastics
    21.3.5: The sources and effects of pollution of the air
    21.3.6: The causes and effects of acid rain on the environment
    21.3.7: Reducing sulfur dioxide pollution and the impact of acid rain
    21.3.8: Enhanced greenhouse effect that leads to climate change
    21.3.9: The negative impacts of female contraceptive hormones in water courses
    21.4: Conservation
    21.4.1: Sustainable resource
    21.4.2: Sustainable development
    21.4.3: The need to conserve non-renewable resources
    21.4.4: Maintaining some resources
    21.4.5: Sustaining forests and fish stocks
    21.4.6: Recycling products
    21.4.7: Requirements for sustainable development
    21.4.8: Sewage treatment
    21.4.9: Endangered and extinct organisms
    21.4.10: The risks to a species if the population size drops
    21.4.11: Conserving endangered species
    21.4.12: Reasons for conservation programmes

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